Eisenhower and the Cold War

In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower assumed the presidency.  Possessing years of military experience, Eisenhower entered the office with more experience in foreign affairs and diplomacy than his predecessor, Harry S. Truman.  Eisenhower believed the Cold War had grown dangerously out of control, especially in terms of its economic costs.  His first priority was to bring the war in Korea to an end, a promise he had made on the campaign trail.

Armistice in Korea

With negotiations in Korea stalled over issues relating to prisoners of war, Eisenhower began hinting in public speeches that the United States would consider using nuclear weapons in Korea to bring the war to an end.  The president hoped that the threat would force leaders in China and North Korea to seek a negotiated end to the conflict.  The bluff worked.  In July 1953 the warring parties returned to the negotiation table and signed an armistice.  While the countries agreed to a truce, a formal peace treaty was never signed, and Korea remains divided to this day.

A New Look

With the Korean situation under control, Eisenhower set out to redefine the methods the United States used to contain communism.  Of particular concern for Eisenhower was the cost associated with waging the Cold War.  Worried that the Cold War might cripple the nation’s economy or drive the U.S. into bankruptcy, Eisenhower introduced a new defense policy known as the “New Look.”

Under the New Look, the United States would rely less on costly conventional forces, such as ground troops and naval forces, and depend more on nuclear weapons, air power, and covert operations.  Defense Secretary Charles Wilson summarized the new policy by suggesting nuclear weapons provided “more bang for the buck.”   To emphasize the United States’ commitment to the New Look, Eisenhower and his Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, introduced the doctrine of “massive retaliation.”  Under this doctrine, the Eisenhower administration implied that it would use nuclear force to protect U.S. security and interests anywhere in the world.  Through this approach, the United States sought to discourage the Soviet Union from staging an offensive attack on U.S. interests for fear of a massive retaliatory strike.

Convincing the Enemy

The new approach was a dangerous game of brinkmanship, one that involved convincing your enemy of your willingness use nuclear weapons.  As Secretary of State Dulles noted, “the ability to get to the verge without getting into war is the necessary art.  If you cannot master it, you inevitably get into war . . . we walked to the brink and we looked it in the face.”  To convince the Soviet Union of the United States’ willingness to use nuclear weapons, Eisenhower and Dulles delivered dramatic speeches in which they described situations that would require the use of nuclear weapons.  More importantly, Dulles stated that the U.S. would respond to Soviet aggression “at places and with means of our own choosing.”

Fallout Shelters

In another attempt to convince the Soviet Union of the United States’ willingness to use nuclear weapons, American leaders educated Americans on how to survive nuclear warfare.  Officials claimed that, with proper planning, survival was possible.  Official government documents and magazines, including Popular Mechanics, included directions for building and stocking fallout shelters.  Fallout shelters were designed to protect individuals from the effects associated with nuclear destruction.  While most designs included just enough space for a family and their necessities, some resembled homes and included areas for luxuries, including pool tables and furniture.  Most of these structures were built from concrete in the belief that the substance could protect individuals from nuclear fallout.  US News and World Report claimed that a 32-inch thick slab of concrete could protect people from an atomic blast as close as 1,000 feet away.

Drills

In yet another attempt to prepare for war, Americans across the United States participated in Civil Defense drills.  Children in public schools learned about the need to “Duck and Cover.”  During duck and cover drills a teacher shouted “drop” and the students immediately dropped into a kneeling position beneath their desks.  Some schools even went so far as to issue identification tags to their students. Public schools also taught Civil Defense classes in which school children learned about radiation, as well as basic survival skills. It was not uncommon for some of these lessons to begin with a simple question, “Do you know exactly what your family would do if an attack came?”